The Returned Soldiers and Sailors Mills was located near the Barwon river on Pakington Street, Geelong, where its building still stands. The mill was established in October 1922 with capital acquired from War Gratuity Bonds. The mill produced fine grade woollen products with its speciality being ‘Retsol’ travelling rugs. The mill first began to run into financial troubles with the ‘Credit Squeeze’ or the ‘Holt Jolt’ of the early 1960s. This saw import restrictions lifted which triggered the start of a minor recession and a rise in unemployment. Included in these troubles was the RS&S Mill which saw the number of employees gradually decrease and business declining with cheaper imports beginning to grab an expanding part of the market share. The mill was eventually purchased by Godfrey Hirst in 1973 who tried to continue operations without success and in June 1975 textile production at the site ceased. Outside of financial considerations contributing to the closure of Woollen Mills in this period was the declining need for heavier fabrics as in-home heating and insulation improved. This need had been replaced for a demand for ever softer, finer and lighter worsted fabrics for more casual clothing. Modern day textile production requires fewer steps in the processing of materials for this use. This meant large factory complexes such as early woollen mills like the RS&S mills were no longer required. Compared to modern textile production which can spin a fine yarn out of synthetic fibre or imported cotton easily, spinning fine yarn from medium quality wool at a textile factory was cumbersome and no longer financially viable to suit new consumer demands. This rug provides context to this statement. It was gifted to Shirley and Gordon Green as a wedding present in November 1963 by one of Gordon's colleagues in the wool industry. Living in areas such as Neutral Bay, the Hornsby area and later in life retiring to the Central Coast, the blanket was too heavy for use in these weather conditions and hence it stayed in its original box for nearly 60 years. Top and bottom of rug has frilled edges. Pattern is titled the 'Clan Cameron' and is repeated in a 7x7 grid. Front of rug has a red background with 4 vertical and horizontal lines. All is surrounded by a yellow boarder. Label is stitched into the bottom right corner. Reverse of rug also has a repeating 7x7 grid. Blue background with thick green horizontal stripe. Yellow and red boarder to the grid with 4 red vertical and horizontal lines making up the interior. Rug measure 1550 x 2040mm, approximately the same size as a queen size mattress.Wording, Bottom right corner. THE GEELONG R.S&S. WOOLEN MILLS/ PURE/ WOOL/ AUSTRALIA/ The John Monash Rug (cursive)/ The Clan Cameron (cursive)rs&s mills, textile manufacture, rug, clan cameron, sydney greasy wool exchange

Carpet samples created by Godfrey Hirst, a carpet mill whose history spans back to 1865 when the Victorian Woollen and Cloth Manufacturing Company began operations in Geelong and was purchased in the 1890s by the man Godfrey Hirst. Godfrey Hirst’s entrepreneurial skills and knowledge of the industry led to the great success which saw the company expand in multiple forms over the next century and a half. Today, thousands of metres of carpet are produced by Godfrey Hirst every day, and their flooring can be found in millions of homes. These 6 carpet samples date from the early 1990s and each have a unique colour pattern and design.Each carpet sample is made with a pile fibre that is 100% wool. The primary backing of the carpet is a woven polypropylene with a secondary backing a woven jute. Carpet 8102.1's colour name is Slate. It has a dark grey background with a red and blue diagonal stripe. The pattern repeats in a 10cm x 11.5cm block. Carpet 8102.2’s colour name is Terracotta. It is a mostly block pink colour with no repeating pattern. It has occasional flicks of grey. Carpet 8102.3’s colour name is Arctic Night. It has white, light blue and grey colours repeating one after another in a diagonal line. Carpet 8102.4’s colour name is Ivory. It has a brown background with a cream colour diamond. The pattern repeats in a 15cm x 15cm block. Carpet 8102.5’s colour name is Glenwood. It has a thin darker green and lighter green horizontal stripe spanning its entire width. These stripes repeat the height of the carpet. Carpet 8105.6’s colour name is also Ivory. It has a brown background with a cream colour leaf pattern. The pattern repeats in a 92cm x 92cm block.Wording on rear: Numerous. See Media.godfrey hirst, carpet, textile manufacture

A Textile Designer’s Fabric Sample Book is an important tool for keeping a record of past designs. This is useful in order to showcase a designer’s previous work; functioning like a portfolio or a résumé. They also serve as a source of inspiration, sometimes even providing a template to re-release iconic designs. The National Wool Museum has a large collection of Fabric Sample Books. They reveal the colour and daring designs produced by textile mills across various time periods. This Fabric Sample Book is from the 1920s and gives us insights into design trends that are now over a century old.The cover of this book has a brown/grey marble. It carries many marks and oils from the hands, after more than a century of use. A strip of red tape has been added to the spine of the book in order to give it integrity. The book internally has white pages that have turned a brown/cream with age. These pages have a faint blue line printed horizontally across them, to assist with handwriting. The contents of the pages are fabric samples which have been staple to them, as well as handwriting with a blue ink. The pages also include technical drawings, relating to the fabric samples and how such samples were woven together.textile design, textile manufacture

Parts for grey textile machine manufactured by Scott Testers Inc, Builders, Providence R.I., USA.

Photograph most likely used for promotional purposes. The machine possibly could have been manufactured by Chadwick Machine Co Ltd, a British textile machine company established in 1899.Black and white photograph of a carding machine.Rear handwritten top edge - Chadwickstextile machinery, wool manufacture, wool, spinning

Photographs were most likely used for promotional purposes. The photographed machine was made by Tomlinsons (Roshdale) Limited, was British machine manufacture company based in Rochdale.Black and white photo of a Rag Puller Machine in landscape format. Location of photo looks to be in a textile mill.On machine - Tomlinsons (Roshdale) Limited.textile machinery, wool manufacture, wool, timlinsons, rag pulling

Photographs were most likely used for promotional purposes.Sepia photograph of a loom in landscape format.Bottom mid edge - NEG. 17689 ORDER M&C 12106textile machinery, wool manufacture, wool, loom

Photographs were most likely used for promotional purposes. Loom made by David Crabtree & Son, a loom manufacturer based in Laisterdyke, Bradford.Black and white blue tinged photograph of a loom in landscape format.Stamped top right corner - David Crabtree & Son HOPE IRON WORKS, Laisterdyke, BRADFORDtextile machinery, wool manufacture, wool, loom

Photographs were most likely used for promotional purposes. Black and white photograph of a spinning machine in landscape format.textile machinery, wool manufacture, wool, spinning

George Hodgson Limited Business Card, a British loom manufacture based in Bradford England. The card showcases the awards the company as won as well as a description of one of their looms.Cream business card printed with the black ink. The front of the card lists the awards and medals the company had one in the background with an image of each award. The company logo is placed in the center. The back of the card has a drawing of a loom with a decorative border.Front top edge - Awards for Improvements & Excellence in Power Looms for Weaving. Front middle - George Hodgson Limited Makers of Power Looms for Weaving. Bradford, Yorkshire, England Front bottom edge - Presented by J T Elioors (?) Back bottom edge - One shaft heavy underpick worsted and woollen cloth loom, with 4 holed drop box on each side, fitted with positive wheel dobby.textile machinery, wool manufacture, wool, loom, george hodgson limited

Photographs were most likely used for promotional purposes. Room filled with wool scouring machines in an unknown textile mill.Sepia photo of a room filled with Scouring Machines in landscape format, located a textile mill.textile machinery, wool manufacture, wool, scouring

Man standing in what looks to be a wool processing factory.Black and white photo of a man surrounded by machinery in a landscape format. The photo is attached to a olive coloured board.textile machinery, wool manufacture, wool

Sales photograph for William Tatham Ltd. of Rochdale, to showcase new Carding Machines in a newly developed textile factory. The photograph was taken in Glasgow, Scotland.A black and white photo of a room filled with working Carding Machines in a portrait format. A man is working at the end of the closest machine.On rear - top margin - Showing Card Sets in new Card Room. Bottom right corner - Commercial Artists photographers and blockmakers Scottish Studios and Engravers LTD. 196 Clyde st. Glasgow. C C.P.D 6893 Dtextile machinery, wool manufacture, carding, wool, glasgow

Photographs were most likely used for promotional purposes. The Q-VEE machine is a scouring machine. When fabric is removed from the loom it is often stiff, rough or uneven. Scouring removes the oils and dirt picked up from manufacture, leaving the fabric soft and fluffy. The photographed machine was made by J. Stone & Co, a British marine and railway engineering company based in Deptford in south east London.Four black and white, blue tinged photos of a Scouring Machine from different angles. Black writing on the rear, typed with a typewriter and stamped with the company stamp.8051.1 - rear - "Q-VEE" Machine. Tomlinsons (Roshdale) Limited. SOHO Works Rochdale. 29.6.37 849 8051.2 - rear - "Q-VEE" Machine. Tomlinsons (Roshdale) Limited. SOHO Works Rochdale. 29.6.37 856 8051.3 - rear - "Q-VEE" Machine. Tomlinsons (Roshdale) Limited. SOHO Works Rochdale. 29.6.37 851 8051.4 - front on machine - FIY Chain Gear J.Stone & Co Ltd London rear - P.I.V. Dial Control Tomlinsons (Roshdale) Limited. SOHO Works Rochdale. 29.6.37 853textile machinery, wool manufacture, wool, scouring

Photograph of a Hutchinson, Hollingworth and Co. Limited Loom gears and mechanisms. Hutchinson, Hollingworth and Co. was an Oldham-based loom manufacturer estalished in 1860 by Messrs. John Hutchinson (c.1816-1888) of Cawthorne and James Hollingworth(c.1834-1895) of Holmfirth.Three black and white photographs in portrait format of a looms gear mechanisms.8052.1 - front on machine mid left quadrant - Hutchinson, Hollingworth and Co 8052.2 - front on machine mid left quadrant - Hutchinson, Hollingworth and Cotextile machinery, wool manufacture, wool, loom

Photographs most likely used for promotional purposes. The photographs are of a yarn spinning machine used to place yarn onto bobbins. The machine was made by Hearl Heaton and Sons Ltd, founded in 1809. The company played an important part in Britain’s Industrial Revolution, providing bobbins to the textile mills across the North of England.Four black and white photographs of a yarn spinning machine. The first two photos show the machine in the lower floor of the building and the last two are on the upper floor. The are connected by the two chains working the machine.8053.1 - Front right edge - Hearl Heaton & Sons Ltd Crown Steel Works, Liversedge. 8053.2 - Rear middle - No.1 Hearl Heaton & Sons Ltd Crown Steel Works, Liversedge. 8053.3 - Front top edge - Hearl Heaton & Sons Ltd Crown Steel Works, Liversedge. 8053.4 - No. 2 Hearl Heaton & Sons Ltd Crown Steel Works, Liversedge.textile machinery, wool manufacture, wool, spinning

Photograph most likely used for promotional purposes. The machine possibly could have been manufactured by Chadwick Machine Co Ltd, a British textile machine company established in 1899.Two black and white photographs of a carding machine. The first photo is of the rear of the machine, the second the front.8054.1 - rear handwritten top edge - Chadwicks left edge - unknown 8054.2 - a calculation of numberstextile machinery, wool manufacture, wool, spinning

The Fashion & Design collections of Kew Historical Society include a number of art or household textiles manufactured or created in the United Kingdom as well as in Australia. As other cultures opened to Australian travellers in the 20th century, members began collecting and donating textiles produced in a number of other countries.Embroidered doily in the shape of Australia commemorating the ‘Royal Visit 1954’. The multicoloured embroidered images used on the include koalas and eucalyptus flowers on a cream fringed ground. doilies - patriotic, doilies - symbolic, soft furnishings, royal visits

The Fashion & Textiles collections of Kew Historical Society include a number of art or household textiles manufactured or created in the United Kingdom as well as in Australia. As other cultures opened to Australian travellers in the 20th century, members began collecting and donating textiles produced in a number of other countries. Evening bag constructed from two silk embroidered Chinese rank badges. Authentic badges would have been used on Imperial court costumes in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The badges that comprise the bag are identical and were probably sold as souvenirs in Hong Kong during the 20th century. bags, evening bags, mandarin squares, chinese rank badges

Kinnear's factory in Footscray, Melbourne is a large industrial site which is no longer used for rope making. Until its closure Kinnear's Rope : - *was an important example of a rope making factory. *was the largest and longest continually operating producer of rope products in Victoria. * contributed to the industrial landscape of Melbourne, in particular the western suburb of Footscray as a major industrial centre. *played a role in the history of post war migration to Victoria. *had an mportant and successful role in rope and textile manufacturing in Victoria during the twentieth century.  * site includes the remnant rope walk which is demonstrative of a traditional rope laying process no longer practiced and one of only two surviving such structures in Victoria. *remnant rope-making machinery is of technological significance as rare surviving examples of such equipment dating from the early twentieth century. (http://www.maribyrnong.vic.gov.au/Files/C93_kinnears_amendment_request_sm.pdf)An advertisement for Kinnear's Emu Brand rope and twine. It features a close up photograph of a man sewing a hessian bag closed, and Kinnear House in King Street, Melbourne.kinnear, rope, footscray, kinnear house, industry

This is a silk picture woven by the highly acclaimed French jacquard loom woven tapestry maker Neyret Freres. The scene is derived from a painting by Spanish artist Mariano Alonzo Perez (1853-1930). This style of weaving is referred to as a Stevengraph, named for their original creator, Thomas Stevens (1828-1888), a 19th century weaver from Coventry, England. Neyret Freres began manufacturing textiles in 1823, and are still in operation today. Silk embroidery in a decorative gilt frame. The scene depicts a Victorian era billiards room. An ornate billiard table is at the centre of the image. At the near end of the table, two men are crouching down and leaning over the table, examining billiard balls while holding billiard cues in their left hands. At the far end of the table, a woman is sitting on the corner of the billiard table while holding a billiard cue in her left hand, in an intimate face to face pose with a man standing behind the billiard table. All figures are depicted in Victorian era aristocratic dress. The bottom right corner of the images features the signature 'D'A. PEREZ'. Three small stickers for Gibson's Auctioneers are attached to the back of the artwork, as well as a sticker referencing the framer of the work and a shipping sticker for International Art Services. Two d-rings and a wire fitting are attached to the back of the artwork for hanging.

This is a silk picture woven by the highly acclaimed French jacquard loom woven tapestry maker Neyret Freres. The scene is derived from a painting by Spanish artist Mariano Alonzo Perez (1853-1930). This style of weaving is referred to as a Stevengraph, named for their original creator, Thomas Stevens (1828-1888), a 19th century weaver from Coventry, England. Neyret Freres began manufacturing textiles in 1823, and are still in operation today. Silk embroidery in a decorative gilt frame. The scene depicts a group of women taking a fencing lesson, under the guidance of a male teacher. Two women are pictured pointing sabres at each other at the centre of the image, while four other women look on at the right of the image. The teacher is shown on the left hand side of the image, holding a sabre in his right hand which is pointing downwards so that the tip of his sabre is resting against the floor. All figures in the image are wearing Victorian era dress. There is a sticker for Gibson's Auctioneers attached to the bottom right hand corner of the front of the artwork. Two small stickers for Gibson's Auctioneers are attached to the back of the artwork, as well as a sticker referencing the framer of the work and a shipping sticker for International Art Services. Two d-rings and a wire fitting are attached to the back of the artwork for hanging.

The Fashion & Textiles collections of Kew Historical Society include a number of textiles, as well as women’s, men’s, children’s and infants’ clothing from the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Textiles include items manufactured or created in the United Kingdom as well as in Australia. As other cultures opened to Australian travellers in the 20th century, members began collecting and donating textiles produced in a number of other countries. Fashion (or clothing/costumes) in the collection was essentially produced for, or purchased by women in Melbourne, and includes examples of outerwear, protective wear, This cocktail dress is one of a number of items donated to the Fashion Collection by Rosemary-Vaughan Smith.Medium length silver satin evening dress. The weave of the silk fabric includes small pink flowers. The bodice is gathered to give the impression of a bow. The dress has strapped shoulders.women's clothing, cocktail dresses, evening wear, rosemary vaughan-smith, australian fashion - 1950s

Prior to carrying out a detailed condition report of the cetacean skeletons, it is useful to have an understanding of the materials we are likely to encounter, in terms of structure and chemistry. This entry invites you to join in learning about the composition of whale bone and oil. Whale bone (Cetacean) bone is comprised of a composite structure of both an inorganic matrix of mainly hydroxylapatite (a calcium phosphate mineral), providing strength and rigidity, as well as an organic protein ‘scaffolding’ of mainly collagen, facilitating growth and repair (O’Connor 2008, CCI 2010). Collagen is also the structural protein component in cartilage between the whale vertebrae and attached to the fins of both the Killer Whale and the Dolphin. Relative proportions in the bone composition (affecting density), are linked with the feeding habits and mechanical stresses typically endured by bones of particular whale types. A Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758) skeleton (toothed) thus has a higher mineral value (~67%) than a Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus Linnaeus, 1758) (baleen) (~60%) (Turner Walker 2012). The internal structure of bone can be divided into compact and cancellous bone. In whales, load-bearing structures such as mandibles and upper limb bones (e.g. humerus, sternum) are largely composed of compact bone (Turner Walker 2012). This consists of lamella concentrically deposited around the longitudinal axis and is permeated by fluid carrying channels (O’Connor 2008). Cancellous (spongy) bone, with a highly porous angular network of trabeculae, is less stiff and thus found in whale ribs and vertebrae (Turner Walker 2012). Whale oil Whales not only carry a thick layer of fat (blubber) in the soft tissue of their body for heat insulation and as a food store while they are alive, but also hold large oil (lipid) reserves in their porous bones. Following maceration of the whale skeleton after death to remove the soft tissue, the bones retain a high lipid content (Higgs et. al 2010). Particularly bones with a spongy (porous) structure have a high capacity to hold oil-rich marrow. Comparative data of various whale species suggests the skull, particularly the cranium and mandible bones are particularly oil rich. Along the vertebral column, the lipid content is reduced, particularly in the thoracic vertebrae (~10-25%), yet greatly increases from the lumbar to the caudal vertebrae (~40-55%). The chest area (scapula, sternum and ribs) show a mid-range lipid content (~15-30%), with vertically orientated ribs being more heavily soaked lower down (Turner Walker 2012, Higgs et. al 2010). Whale oil is largely composed of triglycerides (molecules of fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule). In Arctic whales a higher proportion of unsaturated, versus saturated fatty acids make up the lipid. Unsaturated fatty acids (with double or triple carbon bonds causing chain kinks, preventing close packing (solidifying) of molecules), are more likely to be liquid (oil), versus solid (fat) at room temperature (Smith and March 2007). Objects Made From the Whaling Industry We all know that men set forth in sailing ships and risked their lives to harpoon whales on the open seas throughout the 1800s. And while Moby Dick and other tales have made whaling stories immortal, people today generally don't appreciate that the whalers were part of a well-organized industry. The ships that set out from ports in New England roamed as far as the Pacific in hunt of specific species of whales. Adventure may have been the draw for some whalers, but for the captains who owned whaling ships, and the investors which financed voyages, there was a considerable monetary payoff. The gigantic carcasses of whales were chopped and boiled down and turned into products such as the fine oil needed to lubricate increasing advanced machine tools. And beyond the oil derived from whales, even their bones, in an era before the invention of plastic, was used to make a wide variety of consumer goods. In short, whales were a valuable natural resource the same as wood, minerals, or petroleum we now pump from the ground. Oil From Whale’s Blubber Oil was the main product sought from whales, and it was used to lubricate machinery and to provide illumination by burning it in lamps. When a whale was killed, it was towed to the ship and its blubber, the thick insulating fat under its skin, would be peeled and cut from its carcass in a process known as “flensing.” The blubber was minced into chunks and boiled in large vats on board the whaling ship, producing oil. The oil taken from whale blubber was packaged in casks and transported back to the whaling ship’s home port (such as New Bedford, Massachusetts, the busiest American whaling port in the mid-1800s). From the ports it would be sold and transported across the country and would find its way into a huge variety of products. Whale oil, in addition to be used for lubrication and illumination, was also used to manufacture soaps, paint, and varnish. Whale oil was also utilized in some processes used to manufacture textiles and rope. Spermaceti, a Highly Regarded Oil A peculiar oil found in the head of the sperm whale, spermaceti, was highly prized. The oil was waxy, and was commonly used in making candles. In fact, candles made of spermaceti were considered the best in the world, producing a bright clear flame without an excess of smoke. Spermaceti was also used, distilled in liquid form, as an oil to fuel lamps. The main American whaling port, New Bedford, Massachusetts, was thus known as "The City That Lit the World." When John Adams was the ambassador to Great Britain before serving as president he recorded in his diary a conversation about spermaceti he had with the British Prime Minister William Pitt. Adams, keen to promote the New England whaling industry, was trying to convince the British to import spermaceti sold by American whalers, which the British could use to fuel street lamps. The British were not interested. In his diary, Adams wrote that he told Pitt, “the fat of the spermaceti whale gives the clearest and most beautiful flame of any substance that is known in nature, and we are surprised you prefer darkness, and consequent robberies, burglaries, and murders in your streets to receiving as a remittance our spermaceti oil.” Despite the failed sales pitch John Adams made in the late 1700s, the American whaling industry boomed in the early to mid-1800s. And spermaceti was a major component of that success. Spermaceti could be refined into a lubricant that was ideal for precision machinery. The machine tools that made the growth of industry possible in the United States were lubricated, and essentially made possible, by oil derived from spermaceti. Baleen, or "Whalebone" The bones and teeth of various species of whales were used in a number of products, many of them common implements in a 19th century household. Whales are said to have produced “the plastic of the 1800s.” The "bone" of the whale which was most commonly used wasn’t technically a bone, it was baleen, a hard material arrayed in large plates, like gigantic combs, in the mouths of some species of whales. The purpose of the baleen is to act as a sieve, catching tiny organisms in sea water, which the whale consumes as food. As baleen was tough yet flexible, it could be used in a number of practical applications. And it became commonly known as "whalebone." Perhaps the most common use of whalebone was in the manufacture of corsets, which fashionable ladies in the 1800s wore to compress their waistlines. One typical corset advertisement from the 1800s proudly proclaims, “Real Whalebone Only Used.” Whalebone was also used for collar stays, buggy whips, and toys. Its remarkable flexibility even caused it to be used as the springs in early typewriters. The comparison to plastic is apt. Think of common items which today might be made of plastic, and it's likely that similar items in the 1800s would have been made of whalebone. Baleen whales do not have teeth. But the teeth of other whales, such as the sperm whale, would be used as ivory in such products as chess pieces, piano keys, or the handles of walking sticks. Pieces of scrimshaw, or carved whale's teeth, would probably be the best remembered use of whale's teeth. However, the carved teeth were created to pass the time on whaling voyages and were never a mass production item. Their relative rarity, of course, is why genuine pieces of 19th century scrimshaw are considered to be valuable collectibles today. Reference: McNamara, Robert. "Objects Made From the Whaling Industry." ThoughtCo, Jul. 31, 2021, thoughtco.com/products-produced-from-whales-1774070.Whale bone was an important commodity, used in corsets, collar stays, buggy whips, and toys.Whale bone in two pieces. Advanced stage of calcification as indicated by deep pitting. Off white to grey.None.flagstaff hill, warrnambool, shipwrecked-coast, flagstaff-hill, flagstaff-hill-maritime-museum, maritime-museum, shipwreck-coast, flagstaff-hill-maritime-village, whale bones, whale skeleton, whales, whale bone, corsets, toys, whips

Prior to carrying out a detailed condition report of the cetacean skeletons, it is useful to have an understanding of the materials we are likely to encounter, in terms of structure and chemistry. This entry invites you to join in learning about the composition of whale bone and oil. Whale bone (Cetacean) bone is comprised of a composite structure of both an inorganic matrix of mainly hydroxylapatite (a calcium phosphate mineral), providing strength and rigidity, as well as an organic protein ‘scaffolding’ of mainly collagen, facilitating growth and repair (O’Connor 2008, CCI 2010). Collagen is also the structural protein component in cartilage between the whale vertebrae and attached to the fins of both the Killer Whale and the Dolphin. Relative proportions in the bone composition (affecting density), are linked with the feeding habits and mechanical stresses typically endured by bones of particular whale types. A Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758) skeleton (toothed) thus has a higher mineral value (~67%) than a Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus Linnaeus, 1758) (baleen) (~60%) (Turner Walker 2012). The internal structure of bone can be divided into compact and cancellous bone. In whales, load-bearing structures such as mandibles and upper limb bones (e.g. humerus, sternum) are largely composed of compact bone (Turner Walker 2012). This consists of lamella concentrically deposited around the longitudinal axis and is permeated by fluid carrying channels (O’Connor 2008). Cancellous (spongy) bone, with a highly porous angular network of trabeculae, is less stiff and thus found in whale ribs and vertebrae (Turner Walker 2012). Whale oil Whales not only carry a thick layer of fat (blubber) in the soft tissue of their body for heat insulation and as a food store while they are alive, but also hold large oil (lipid) reserves in their porous bones. Following maceration of the whale skeleton after death to remove the soft tissue, the bones retain a high lipid content (Higgs et. al 2010). Particularly bones with a spongy (porous) structure have a high capacity to hold oil-rich marrow. Comparative data of various whale species suggests the skull, particularly the cranium and mandible bones are particularly oil rich. Along the vertebral column, the lipid content is reduced, particularly in the thoracic vertebrae (~10-25%), yet greatly increases from the lumbar to the caudal vertebrae (~40-55%). The chest area (scapula, sternum and ribs) show a mid-range lipid content (~15-30%), with vertically orientated ribs being more heavily soaked lower down (Turner Walker 2012, Higgs et. al 2010). Whale oil is largely composed of triglycerides (molecules of fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule). In Arctic whales a higher proportion of unsaturated, versus saturated fatty acids make up the lipid. Unsaturated fatty acids (with double or triple carbon bonds causing chain kinks, preventing close packing (solidifying) of molecules), are more likely to be liquid (oil), versus solid (fat) at room temperature (Smith and March 2007). Objects Made From the Whaling Industry We all know that men set forth in sailing ships and risked their lives to harpoon whales on the open seas throughout the 1800s. And while Moby Dick and other tales have made whaling stories immortal, people today generally don't appreciate that the whalers were part of a well-organized industry. The ships that set out from ports in New England roamed as far as the Pacific in hunt of specific species of whales. Adventure may have been the draw for some whalers, but for the captains who owned whaling ships, and the investors which financed voyages, there was a considerable monetary payoff. The gigantic carcasses of whales were chopped and boiled down and turned into products such as the fine oil needed to lubricate increasing advanced machine tools. And beyond the oil derived from whales, even their bones, in an era before the invention of plastic, was used to make a wide variety of consumer goods. In short, whales were a valuable natural resource the same as wood, minerals, or petroleum we now pump from the ground. Oil From Whale’s Blubber Oil was the main product sought from whales, and it was used to lubricate machinery and to provide illumination by burning it in lamps. When a whale was killed, it was towed to the ship and its blubber, the thick insulating fat under its skin, would be peeled and cut from its carcass in a process known as “flensing.” The blubber was minced into chunks and boiled in large vats on board the whaling ship, producing oil. The oil taken from whale blubber was packaged in casks and transported back to the whaling ship’s home port (such as New Bedford, Massachusetts, the busiest American whaling port in the mid-1800s). From the ports it would be sold and transported across the country and would find its way into a huge variety of products. Whale oil, in addition to be used for lubrication and illumination, was also used to manufacture soaps, paint, and varnish. Whale oil was also utilized in some processes used to manufacture textiles and rope. Spermaceti, a Highly Regarded Oil A peculiar oil found in the head of the sperm whale, spermaceti, was highly prized. The oil was waxy, and was commonly used in making candles. In fact, candles made of spermaceti were considered the best in the world, producing a bright clear flame without an excess of smoke. Spermaceti was also used, distilled in liquid form, as an oil to fuel lamps. The main American whaling port, New Bedford, Massachusetts, was thus known as "The City That Lit the World." When John Adams was the ambassador to Great Britain before serving as president he recorded in his diary a conversation about spermaceti he had with the British Prime Minister William Pitt. Adams, keen to promote the New England whaling industry, was trying to convince the British to import spermaceti sold by American whalers, which the British could use to fuel street lamps. The British were not interested. In his diary, Adams wrote that he told Pitt, “the fat of the spermaceti whale gives the clearest and most beautiful flame of any substance that is known in nature, and we are surprised you prefer darkness, and consequent robberies, burglaries, and murders in your streets to receiving as a remittance our spermaceti oil.” Despite the failed sales pitch John Adams made in the late 1700s, the American whaling industry boomed in the early to mid-1800s. And spermaceti was a major component of that success. Spermaceti could be refined into a lubricant that was ideal for precision machinery. The machine tools that made the growth of industry possible in the United States were lubricated, and essentially made possible, by oil derived from spermaceti. Baleen, or "Whalebone" The bones and teeth of various species of whales were used in a number of products, many of them common implements in a 19th century household. Whales are said to have produced “the plastic of the 1800s.” The "bone" of the whale which was most commonly used wasn’t technically a bone, it was baleen, a hard material arrayed in large plates, like gigantic combs, in the mouths of some species of whales. The purpose of the baleen is to act as a sieve, catching tiny organisms in sea water, which the whale consumes as food. As baleen was tough yet flexible, it could be used in a number of practical applications. And it became commonly known as "whalebone." Perhaps the most common use of whalebone was in the manufacture of corsets, which fashionable ladies in the 1800s wore to compress their waistlines. One typical corset advertisement from the 1800s proudly proclaims, “Real Whalebone Only Used.” Whalebone was also used for collar stays, buggy whips, and toys. Its remarkable flexibility even caused it to be used as the springs in early typewriters. The comparison to plastic is apt. Think of common items which today might be made of plastic, and it's likely that similar items in the 1800s would have been made of whalebone. Baleen whales do not have teeth. But the teeth of other whales, such as the sperm whale, would be used as ivory in such products as chess pieces, piano keys, or the handles of walking sticks. Pieces of scrimshaw, or carved whale's teeth, would probably be the best remembered use of whale's teeth. However, the carved teeth were created to pass the time on whaling voyages and were never a mass production item. Their relative rarity, of course, is why genuine pieces of 19th century scrimshaw are considered to be valuable collectibles today. Reference: McNamara, Robert. "Objects Made From the Whaling Industry." ThoughtCo, Jul. 31, 2021, thoughtco.com/products-produced-from-whales-1774070.Whale bone was an important commodity, used in corsets, collar stays, buggy whips, and toys.Whale bone piece. Advanced stage of calcification as indicated by deep pitting. Off white to grey.None.flagstaff hill, warrnambool, shipwrecked-coast, flagstaff-hill, flagstaff-hill-maritime-museum, maritime-museum, shipwreck-coast, flagstaff-hill-maritime-village, whales, whale bone, corsets, toys, whips

Prior to carrying out a detailed condition report of the cetacean skeletons, it is useful to have an understanding of the materials we are likely to encounter, in terms of structure and chemistry. This entry invites you to join in learning about the composition of whale bone and oil. Whale bone (Cetacean) bone is comprised of a composite structure of both an inorganic matrix of mainly hydroxylapatite (a calcium phosphate mineral), providing strength and rigidity, as well as an organic protein ‘scaffolding’ of mainly collagen, facilitating growth and repair (O’Connor 2008, CCI 2010). Collagen is also the structural protein component in cartilage between the whale vertebrae and attached to the fins of both the Killer Whale and the Dolphin. Relative proportions in the bone composition (affecting density), are linked with the feeding habits and mechanical stresses typically endured by bones of particular whale types. A Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758) skeleton (toothed) thus has a higher mineral value (~67%) than a Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus Linnaeus, 1758) (baleen) (~60%) (Turner Walker 2012). The internal structure of bone can be divided into compact and cancellous bone. In whales, load-bearing structures such as mandibles and upper limb bones (e.g. humerus, sternum) are largely composed of compact bone (Turner Walker 2012). This consists of lamella concentrically deposited around the longitudinal axis and is permeated by fluid carrying channels (O’Connor 2008). Cancellous (spongy) bone, with a highly porous angular network of trabeculae, is less stiff and thus found in whale ribs and vertebrae (Turner Walker 2012). Whale oil Whales not only carry a thick layer of fat (blubber) in the soft tissue of their body for heat insulation and as a food store while they are alive, but also hold large oil (lipid) reserves in their porous bones. Following maceration of the whale skeleton after death to remove the soft tissue, the bones retain a high lipid content (Higgs et. al 2010). Particularly bones with a spongy (porous) structure have a high capacity to hold oil-rich marrow. Comparative data of various whale species suggests the skull, particularly the cranium and mandible bones are particularly oil rich. Along the vertebral column, the lipid content is reduced, particularly in the thoracic vertebrae (~10-25%), yet greatly increases from the lumbar to the caudal vertebrae (~40-55%). The chest area (scapula, sternum and ribs) show a mid-range lipid content (~15-30%), with vertically orientated ribs being more heavily soaked lower down (Turner Walker 2012, Higgs et. al 2010). Whale oil is largely composed of triglycerides (molecules of fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule). In Arctic whales a higher proportion of unsaturated, versus saturated fatty acids make up the lipid. Unsaturated fatty acids (with double or triple carbon bonds causing chain kinks, preventing close packing (solidifying) of molecules), are more likely to be liquid (oil), versus solid (fat) at room temperature (Smith and March 2007). Objects Made From the Whaling Industry We all know that men set forth in sailing ships and risked their lives to harpoon whales on the open seas throughout the 1800s. And while Moby Dick and other tales have made whaling stories immortal, people today generally don't appreciate that the whalers were part of a well-organized industry. The ships that set out from ports in New England roamed as far as the Pacific in hunt of specific species of whales. Adventure may have been the draw for some whalers, but for the captains who owned whaling ships, and the investors which financed voyages, there was a considerable monetary payoff. The gigantic carcasses of whales were chopped and boiled down and turned into products such as the fine oil needed to lubricate increasing advanced machine tools. And beyond the oil derived from whales, even their bones, in an era before the invention of plastic, was used to make a wide variety of consumer goods. In short, whales were a valuable natural resource the same as wood, minerals, or petroleum we now pump from the ground. Oil From Whale’s Blubber Oil was the main product sought from whales, and it was used to lubricate machinery and to provide illumination by burning it in lamps. When a whale was killed, it was towed to the ship and its blubber, the thick insulating fat under its skin, would be peeled and cut from its carcass in a process known as “flensing.” The blubber was minced into chunks and boiled in large vats on board the whaling ship, producing oil. The oil taken from whale blubber was packaged in casks and transported back to the whaling ship’s home port (such as New Bedford, Massachusetts, the busiest American whaling port in the mid-1800s). From the ports it would be sold and transported across the country and would find its way into a huge variety of products. Whale oil, in addition to be used for lubrication and illumination, was also used to manufacture soaps, paint, and varnish. Whale oil was also utilized in some processes used to manufacture textiles and rope. Spermaceti, a Highly Regarded Oil A peculiar oil found in the head of the sperm whale, spermaceti, was highly prized. The oil was waxy, and was commonly used in making candles. In fact, candles made of spermaceti were considered the best in the world, producing a bright clear flame without an excess of smoke. Spermaceti was also used, distilled in liquid form, as an oil to fuel lamps. The main American whaling port, New Bedford, Massachusetts, was thus known as "The City That Lit the World." When John Adams was the ambassador to Great Britain before serving as president he recorded in his diary a conversation about spermaceti he had with the British Prime Minister William Pitt. Adams, keen to promote the New England whaling industry, was trying to convince the British to import spermaceti sold by American whalers, which the British could use to fuel street lamps. The British were not interested. In his diary, Adams wrote that he told Pitt, “the fat of the spermaceti whale gives the clearest and most beautiful flame of any substance that is known in nature, and we are surprised you prefer darkness, and consequent robberies, burglaries, and murders in your streets to receiving as a remittance our spermaceti oil.” Despite the failed sales pitch John Adams made in the late 1700s, the American whaling industry boomed in the early to mid-1800s. And spermaceti was a major component of that success. Spermaceti could be refined into a lubricant that was ideal for precision machinery. The machine tools that made the growth of industry possible in the United States were lubricated, and essentially made possible, by oil derived from spermaceti. Baleen, or "Whalebone" The bones and teeth of various species of whales were used in a number of products, many of them common implements in a 19th century household. Whales are said to have produced “the plastic of the 1800s.” The "bone" of the whale which was most commonly used wasn’t technically a bone, it was baleen, a hard material arrayed in large plates, like gigantic combs, in the mouths of some species of whales. The purpose of the baleen is to act as a sieve, catching tiny organisms in sea water, which the whale consumes as food. As baleen was tough yet flexible, it could be used in a number of practical applications. And it became commonly known as "whalebone." Perhaps the most common use of whalebone was in the manufacture of corsets, which fashionable ladies in the 1800s wore to compress their waistlines. One typical corset advertisement from the 1800s proudly proclaims, “Real Whalebone Only Used.” Whalebone was also used for collar stays, buggy whips, and toys. Its remarkable flexibility even caused it to be used as the springs in early typewriters. The comparison to plastic is apt. Think of common items which today might be made of plastic, and it's likely that similar items in the 1800s would have been made of whalebone. Baleen whales do not have teeth. But the teeth of other whales, such as the sperm whale, would be used as ivory in such products as chess pieces, piano keys, or the handles of walking sticks. Pieces of scrimshaw, or carved whale's teeth, would probably be the best remembered use of whale's teeth. However, the carved teeth were created to pass the time on whaling voyages and were never a mass production item. Their relative rarity, of course, is why genuine pieces of 19th century scrimshaw are considered to be valuable collectibles today. Reference: McNamara, Robert. "Objects Made From the Whaling Industry." ThoughtCo, Jul. 31, 2021, thoughtco.com/products-produced-from-whales-1774070. Whale bone was an important commodity, used in corsets, collar stays, buggy whips, and toys.Whale bone vertebrae. Advanced stage of calcification as indicated by deep pitting. Off white to grey.None.flagstaff hill, warrnambool, shipwrecked-coast, flagstaff-hill, flagstaff-hill-maritime-museum, maritime-museum, shipwreck-coast, flagstaff-hill-maritime-village, whales, whale bone, corsets, toys, whips